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 <div class="doc_title">Kaleidoscope: Conclusion and other useful LLVM
  tidbits</div>

 <ul>
 <li><a href="index.html">Up to Tutorial Index</a></li>
 <li>Chapter 8
   <ol>
     <li><a href="#conclusion">Tutorial Conclusion</a></li>
     <li><a href="#llvmirproperties">Properties of LLVM IR</a>
     <ul>
       <li><a href="#targetindep">Target Independence</a></li>
       <li><a href="#safety">Safety Guarantees</a></li>
       <li><a href="#langspecific">Language-Specific Optimizations</a></li>
     </ul>
     </li>
     <li><a href="#tipsandtricks">Tips and Tricks</a>
     <ul>
       <li><a href="#offsetofsizeof">Implementing portable
                                     offsetof/sizeof</a></li>
       <li><a href="#gcstack">Garbage Collected Stack Frames</a></li>
     </ul>
     </li>
   </ol>
 </li>
 </ul>


 <div class="doc_author">
   <p>Written by <a href="mailto:sabre@nondot.org">Chris Lattner</a></p>
 </div>

 <!-- *********************************************************************** -->
 <div class="doc_section"><a name="conclusion">Tutorial Conclusion</a></div>
 <!-- *********************************************************************** -->

 <div class="doc_text">

 <p>Welcome to the the final chapter of the "<a href="index.html">Implementing a
 language with LLVM</a>" tutorial.  In the course of this tutorial, we have grown
 our little Kaleidoscope language from being a useless toy, to being a
 semi-interesting (but probably still useless) toy. :)</p>

 <p>It is interesting to see how far we've come, and how little code it has
 taken.  We built the entire lexer, parser, AST, code generator, and an
 interactive run-loop (with a JIT!) by-hand in under 700 lines of
 (non-comment/non-blank) code.</p>

 <p>Our little language supports a couple of interesting features: it supports
 user defined binary and unary operators, it uses JIT compilation for immediate
 evaluation, and it supports a few control flow constructs with SSA construction.
 </p>

 <p>Part of the idea of this tutorial was to show you how easy and fun it can be
 to define, build, and play with languages.  Building a compiler need not be a
 scary or mystical process!  Now that you've seen some of the basics, I strongly
 encourage you to take the code and hack on it.  For example, try adding:</p>

 <ul>
 <li><b>global variables</b> - While global variables have questional value in
 modern software engineering, they are often useful when putting together quick
 little hacks like the Kaleidoscope compiler itself.  Fortunately, our current
 setup makes it very easy to add global variables: just have value lookup check
 to see if an unresolved variable is in the global variable symbol table before
 rejecting it.  To create a new global variable, make an instance of the LLVM
 <tt>GlobalVariable</tt> class.</li>

 <li><b>typed variables</b> - Kaleidoscope currently only supports variables of
 type double.  This gives the language a very nice elegance, because only
 supporting one type means that you never have to specify types.  Different
 languages have different ways of handling this.  The easiest way is to require
 the user to specify types for every variable definition, and record the type
 of the variable in the symbol table along with its Value*.</li>

 <li><b>arrays, structs, vectors, etc</b> - Once you add types, you can start
 extending the type system in all sorts of interesting ways.  Simple arrays are
 very easy and are quite useful for many different applications.  Adding them is
 mostly an exercise in learning how the LLVM <a
 href="../LangRef.html#i_getelementptr">getelementptr</a> instruction works: it
 is so nifty/unconventional, it <a
 href="../GetElementPtr.html">has its own FAQ</a>!  If you add support
 for recursive types (e.g. linked lists), make sure to read the <a
 href="../ProgrammersManual.html#TypeResolve">section in the LLVM
 Programmer's Manual</a> that describes how to construct them.</li>

 <li><b>standard runtime</b> - Our current language allows the user to access
 arbitrary external functions, and we use it for things like "printd" and
 "putchard".  As you extend the language to add higher-level constructs, often
 these constructs make the most sense if they are lowered to calls into a
 language-supplied runtime.  For example, if you add hash tables to the language,
 it would probably make sense to add the routines to a runtime, instead of
 inlining them all the way.</li>

 <li><b>memory management</b> - Currently we can only access the stack in
 Kaleidoscope.  It would also be useful to be able to allocate heap memory,
 either with calls to the standard libc malloc/free interface or with a garbage
 collector.  If you would like to use garbage collection, note that LLVM fully
 supports <a href="../GarbageCollection.html">Accurate Garbage Collection</a>
 including algorithms that move objects and need to scan/update the stack.</li>

 <li><b>debugger support</b> - LLVM supports generation of <a
 href="../SourceLevelDebugging.html">DWARF Debug info</a> which is understood by
 common debuggers like GDB.  Adding support for debug info is fairly
 straightforward.  The best way to understand it is to compile some C/C++ code
 with "<tt>llvm-gcc -g -O0</tt>" and taking a look at what it produces.</li>

 <li><b>exception handling support</b> - LLVM supports generation of <a
 href="../ExceptionHandling.html">zero cost exceptions</a> which interoperate
 with code compiled in other languages.  You could also generate code by
 implicitly making every function return an error value and checking it.  You
 could also make explicit use of setjmp/longjmp.  There are many different ways
 to go here.</li>

 <li><b>object orientation, generics, database access, complex numbers,
 geometric programming, ...</b> - Really, there is
 no end of crazy features that you can add to the language.</li>

 <li><b>unusual domains</b> - We've been talking about applying LLVM to a domain
 that many people are interested in: building a compiler for a specific language.
 However, there are many other domains that can use compiler technology that are
 not typically considered.  For example, LLVM has been used to implement OpenGL
 graphics acceleration, translate C++ code to ActionScript, and many other
 cute and clever things.  Maybe you will be the first to JIT compile a regular
 expression interpreter into native code with LLVM?</li>

 </ul>

 <p>
 Have fun - try doing something crazy and unusual.  Building a language like
 everyone else always has, is much less fun than trying something a little crazy
 or off the wall and seeing how it turns out.  If you get stuck or want to talk
 about it, feel free to email the <a
 href="http://lists.cs.uiuc.edu/mailman/listinfo/llvmdev">llvmdev mailing
 list</a>: it has lots of people who are interested in languages and are often
 willing to help out.
 </p>

 <p>Before we end this tutorial, I want to talk about some "tips and tricks" for generating
 LLVM IR.  These are some of the more subtle things that may not be obvious, but
 are very useful if you want to take advantage of LLVM's capabilities.</p>

 </div>

 <!-- *********************************************************************** -->
 <div class="doc_section"><a name="llvmirproperties">Properties of the LLVM
 IR</a></div>
 <!-- *********************************************************************** -->

 <div class="doc_text">

 <p>We have a couple common questions about code in the LLVM IR form - lets just
 get these out of the way right now, shall we?</p>

 </div>

 <!-- ======================================================================= -->
 <div class="doc_subsubsection"><a name="targetindep">Target
 Independence</a></div>
 <!-- ======================================================================= -->

 <div class="doc_text">

 <p>Kaleidoscope is an example of a "portable language": any program written in
 Kaleidoscope will work the same way on any target that it runs on.  Many other
 languages have this property, e.g. lisp, java, haskell, javascript, python, etc
 (note that while these languages are portable, not all their libraries are).</p>

 <p>One nice aspect of LLVM is that it is often capable of preserving target
 independence in the IR: you can take the LLVM IR for a Kaleidoscope-compiled
 program and run it on any target that LLVM supports, even emitting C code and
 compiling that on targets that LLVM doesn't support natively.  You can trivially
 tell that the Kaleidoscope compiler generates target-independent code because it
 never queries for any target-specific information when generating code.</p>

 <p>The fact that LLVM provides a compact, target-independent, representation for
 code gets a lot of people excited.  Unfortunately, these people are usually
 thinking about C or a language from the C family when they are asking questions
 about language portability.  I say "unfortunately", because there is really no
 way to make (fully general) C code portable, other than shipping the source code
 around (and of course, C source code is not actually portable in general
 either - ever port a really old application from 32- to 64-bits?).</p>

 <p>The problem with C (again, in its full generality) is that it is heavily
 laden with target specific assumptions.  As one simple example, the preprocessor
 often destructively removes target-independence from the code when it processes
 the input text:</p>

 <div class="doc_code">
 <pre>
 #ifdef __i386__
   int X = 1;
 #else
   int X = 42;
 #endif
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>While it is possible to engineer more and more complex solutions to problems
 like this, it cannot be solved in full generality in a way that is better than shipping
 the actual source code.</p>

 <p>That said, there are interesting subsets of C that can be made portable.  If
 you are willing to fix primitive types to a fixed size (say int = 32-bits,
 and long = 64-bits), don't care about ABI compatibility with existing binaries,
 and are willing to give up some other minor features, you can have portable
 code.  This can make sense for specialized domains such as an
 in-kernel language.</p>

 </div>

 <!-- ======================================================================= -->
 <div class="doc_subsubsection"><a name="safety">Safety Guarantees</a></div>
 <!-- ======================================================================= -->

 <div class="doc_text">

 <p>Many of the languages above are also "safe" languages: it is impossible for
 a program written in Java to corrupt its address space and crash the process
 (assuming the JVM has no bugs).
 Safety is an interesting property that requires a combination of language
 design, runtime support, and often operating system support.</p>

 <p>It is certainly possible to implement a safe language in LLVM, but LLVM IR
 does not itself guarantee safety.  The LLVM IR allows unsafe pointer casts,
 use after free bugs, buffer over-runs, and a variety of other problems.  Safety
 needs to be implemented as a layer on top of LLVM and, conveniently, several
 groups have investigated this.  Ask on the <a
 href="http://lists.cs.uiuc.edu/mailman/listinfo/llvmdev">llvmdev mailing
 list</a> if you are interested in more details.</p>

 </div>

 <!-- ======================================================================= -->
 <div class="doc_subsubsection"><a name="langspecific">Language-Specific
 Optimizations</a></div>
 <!-- ======================================================================= -->

 <div class="doc_text">

 <p>One thing about LLVM that turns off many people is that it does not solve all
 the world's problems in one system (sorry 'world hunger', someone else will have
 to solve you some other day).  One specific complaint is that people perceive
 LLVM as being incapable of performing high-level language-specific optimization:
 LLVM "loses too much information".</p>

 <p>Unfortunately, this is really not the place to give you a full and unified
 version of "Chris Lattner's theory of compiler design".  Instead, I'll make a
 few observations:</p>

 <p>First, you're right that LLVM does lose information.  For example, as of this
 writing, there is no way to distinguish in the LLVM IR whether an SSA-value came
 from a C "int" or a C "long" on an ILP32 machine (other than debug info).  Both
 get compiled down to an 'i32' value and the information about what it came from
 is lost.  The more general issue here, is that the LLVM type system uses
 "structural equivalence" instead of "name equivalence".  Another place this
 surprises people is if you have two types in a high-level language that have the
 same structure (e.g. two different structs that have a single int field): these
 types will compile down into a single LLVM type and it will be impossible to
 tell what it came from.</p>

 <p>Second, while LLVM does lose information, LLVM is not a fixed target: we
 continue to enhance and improve it in many different ways.  In addition to
 adding new features (LLVM did not always support exceptions or debug info), we
 also extend the IR to capture important information for optimization (e.g.
 whether an argument is sign or zero extended, information about pointers
 aliasing, etc).  Many of the enhancements are user-driven: people want LLVM to
 include some specific feature, so they go ahead and extend it.</p>

 <p>Third, it is <em>possible and easy</em> to add language-specific
 optimizations, and you have a number of choices in how to do it.  As one trivial
 example, it is easy to add language-specific optimization passes that
 "know" things about code compiled for a language.  In the case of the C family,
 there is an optimization pass that "knows" about the standard C library
 functions.  If you call "exit(0)" in main(), it knows that it is safe to
 optimize that into "return 0;" because C specifies what the 'exit'
 function does.</p>

 <p>In addition to simple library knowledge, it is possible to embed a variety of
 other language-specific information into the LLVM IR.  If you have a specific
 need and run into a wall, please bring the topic up on the llvmdev list.  At the
 very worst, you can always treat LLVM as if it were a "dumb code generator" and
 implement the high-level optimizations you desire in your front-end, on the
 language-specific AST.
 </p>

 </div>

 <!-- *********************************************************************** -->
 <div class="doc_section"><a name="tipsandtricks">Tips and Tricks</a></div>
 <!-- *********************************************************************** -->

 <div class="doc_text">

 <p>There is a variety of useful tips and tricks that you come to know after
 working on/with LLVM that aren't obvious at first glance.  Instead of letting
 everyone rediscover them, this section talks about some of these issues.</p>

 </div>

 <!-- ======================================================================= -->
 <div class="doc_subsubsection"><a name="offsetofsizeof">Implementing portable
 offsetof/sizeof</a></div>
 <!-- ======================================================================= -->

 <div class="doc_text">

 <p>One interesting thing that comes up, if you are trying to keep the code
 generated by your compiler "target independent", is that you often need to know
 the size of some LLVM type or the offset of some field in an llvm structure.
 For example, you might need to pass the size of a type into a function that
 allocates memory.</p>

 <p>Unfortunately, this can vary widely across targets: for example the width of
 a pointer is trivially target-specific.  However, there is a <a
 href="http://nondot.org/sabre/LLVMNotes/SizeOf-OffsetOf-VariableSizedStructs.txt">clever
 way to use the getelementptr instruction</a> that allows you to compute this
 in a portable way.</p>

 </div>

 <!-- ======================================================================= -->
 <div class="doc_subsubsection"><a name="gcstack">Garbage Collected
 Stack Frames</a></div>
 <!-- ======================================================================= -->

 <div class="doc_text">

 <p>Some languages want to explicitly manage their stack frames, often so that
 they are garbage collected or to allow easy implementation of closures.  There
 are often better ways to implement these features than explicit stack frames,
 but <a
 href="http://nondot.org/sabre/LLVMNotes/ExplicitlyManagedStackFrames.txt">LLVM
 does support them,</a> if you want.  It requires your front-end to convert the
 code into <a
 href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuation-passing_style">Continuation
 Passing Style</a> and the use of tail calls (which LLVM also supports).</p>

 </div>

 <!-- *********************************************************************** -->
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	<html>
	<head>
	<title>Kaleidoscope: Conclusion and other useful LLVM tidbits</title>
	<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8">
	<meta name="author" content="Chris Lattner">
	<link rel="stylesheet" href="../llvm.css" type="text/css">
	</head>

	<body>

	<div class="doc_title">Kaleidoscope: Conclusion and other useful LLVM
	tidbits</div>

	<ul>
	<li><a href="index.html">Up to Tutorial Index</a></li>
	<li>Chapter 8
	<ol>
	<li><a href="#conclusion">Tutorial Conclusion</a></li>
	<li><a href="#llvmirproperties">Properties of LLVM IR</a>
	<ul>
	<li><a href="#targetindep">Target Independence</a></li>
	<li><a href="#safety">Safety Guarantees</a></li>
	<li><a href="#langspecific">Language-Specific Optimizations</a></li>
	</ul>
	</li>
	<li><a href="#tipsandtricks">Tips and Tricks</a>
	<ul>
	<li><a href="#offsetofsizeof">Implementing portable
	offsetof/sizeof</a></li>
	<li><a href="#gcstack">Garbage Collected Stack Frames</a></li>
	</ul>
	</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	</ul>


	<div class="doc_author">
	<p>Written by <a href="mailto:sabre@nondot.org">Chris Lattner</a></p>
	</div>

	<!-- *********************************************************************** -->
	<div class="doc_section"><a name="conclusion">Tutorial Conclusion</a></div>
	<!-- *********************************************************************** -->

	<div class="doc_text">

	<p>Welcome to the the final chapter of the "<a href="index.html">Implementing a
	language with LLVM</a>" tutorial. In the course of this tutorial, we have grown
	our little Kaleidoscope language from being a useless toy, to being a
	semi-interesting (but probably still useless) toy. :)</p>

	<p>It is interesting to see how far we've come, and how little code it has
	taken. We built the entire lexer, parser, AST, code generator, and an
	interactive run-loop (with a JIT!) by-hand in under 700 lines of
	(non-comment/non-blank) code.</p>

	<p>Our little language supports a couple of interesting features: it supports
	user defined binary and unary operators, it uses JIT compilation for immediate
	evaluation, and it supports a few control flow constructs with SSA construction.
	</p>

	<p>Part of the idea of this tutorial was to show you how easy and fun it can be
	to define, build, and play with languages. Building a compiler need not be a
	scary or mystical process! Now that you've seen some of the basics, I strongly
	encourage you to take the code and hack on it. For example, try adding:</p>

	<ul>
	<li><b>global variables</b> - While global variables have questional value in
	modern software engineering, they are often useful when putting together quick
	little hacks like the Kaleidoscope compiler itself. Fortunately, our current
	setup makes it very easy to add global variables: just have value lookup check
	to see if an unresolved variable is in the global variable symbol table before
	rejecting it. To create a new global variable, make an instance of the LLVM
	<tt>GlobalVariable</tt> class.</li>

	<li><b>typed variables</b> - Kaleidoscope currently only supports variables of
	type double. This gives the language a very nice elegance, because only
	supporting one type means that you never have to specify types. Different
	languages have different ways of handling this. The easiest way is to require
	the user to specify types for every variable definition, and record the type
	of the variable in the symbol table along with its Value*.</li>

	<li><b>arrays, structs, vectors, etc</b> - Once you add types, you can start
	extending the type system in all sorts of interesting ways. Simple arrays are
	very easy and are quite useful for many different applications. Adding them is
	mostly an exercise in learning how the LLVM <a
	href="../LangRef.html#i_getelementptr">getelementptr</a> instruction works: it
	is so nifty/unconventional, it <a
	href="../GetElementPtr.html">has its own FAQ</a>! If you add support
	for recursive types (e.g. linked lists), make sure to read the <a
	href="../ProgrammersManual.html#TypeResolve">section in the LLVM
	Programmer's Manual</a> that describes how to construct them.</li>

	<li><b>standard runtime</b> - Our current language allows the user to access
	arbitrary external functions, and we use it for things like "printd" and
	"putchard". As you extend the language to add higher-level constructs, often
	these constructs make the most sense if they are lowered to calls into a
	language-supplied runtime. For example, if you add hash tables to the language,
	it would probably make sense to add the routines to a runtime, instead of
	inlining them all the way.</li>

	<li><b>memory management</b> - Currently we can only access the stack in
	Kaleidoscope. It would also be useful to be able to allocate heap memory,
	either with calls to the standard libc malloc/free interface or with a garbage
	collector. If you would like to use garbage collection, note that LLVM fully
	supports <a href="../GarbageCollection.html">Accurate Garbage Collection</a>
	including algorithms that move objects and need to scan/update the stack.</li>

	<li><b>debugger support</b> - LLVM supports generation of <a
	href="../SourceLevelDebugging.html">DWARF Debug info</a> which is understood by
	common debuggers like GDB. Adding support for debug info is fairly
	straightforward. The best way to understand it is to compile some C/C++ code
	with "<tt>llvm-gcc -g -O0</tt>" and taking a look at what it produces.</li>

	<li><b>exception handling support</b> - LLVM supports generation of <a
	href="../ExceptionHandling.html">zero cost exceptions</a> which interoperate
	with code compiled in other languages. You could also generate code by
	implicitly making every function return an error value and checking it. You
	could also make explicit use of setjmp/longjmp. There are many different ways
	to go here.</li>

	<li><b>object orientation, generics, database access, complex numbers,
	geometric programming, ...</b> - Really, there is
	no end of crazy features that you can add to the language.</li>

	<li><b>unusual domains</b> - We've been talking about applying LLVM to a domain
	that many people are interested in: building a compiler for a specific language.
	However, there are many other domains that can use compiler technology that are
	not typically considered. For example, LLVM has been used to implement OpenGL
	graphics acceleration, translate C++ code to ActionScript, and many other
	cute and clever things. Maybe you will be the first to JIT compile a regular
	expression interpreter into native code with LLVM?</li>

	</ul>

	<p>
	Have fun - try doing something crazy and unusual. Building a language like
	everyone else always has, is much less fun than trying something a little crazy
	or off the wall and seeing how it turns out. If you get stuck or want to talk
	about it, feel free to email the <a
	href="http://lists.cs.uiuc.edu/mailman/listinfo/llvmdev">llvmdev mailing
	list</a>: it has lots of people who are interested in languages and are often
	willing to help out.
	</p>

	<p>Before we end this tutorial, I want to talk about some "tips and tricks" for generating
	LLVM IR. These are some of the more subtle things that may not be obvious, but
	are very useful if you want to take advantage of LLVM's capabilities.</p>

	</div>

	<!-- *********************************************************************** -->
	<div class="doc_section"><a name="llvmirproperties">Properties of the LLVM
	IR</a></div>
	<!-- *********************************************************************** -->

	<div class="doc_text">

	<p>We have a couple common questions about code in the LLVM IR form - lets just
	get these out of the way right now, shall we?</p>

	</div>

	<!-- ======================================================================= -->
	<div class="doc_subsubsection"><a name="targetindep">Target
	Independence</a></div>
	<!-- ======================================================================= -->

	<div class="doc_text">

	<p>Kaleidoscope is an example of a "portable language": any program written in
	Kaleidoscope will work the same way on any target that it runs on. Many other
	languages have this property, e.g. lisp, java, haskell, javascript, python, etc
	(note that while these languages are portable, not all their libraries are).</p>

	<p>One nice aspect of LLVM is that it is often capable of preserving target
	independence in the IR: you can take the LLVM IR for a Kaleidoscope-compiled
	program and run it on any target that LLVM supports, even emitting C code and
	compiling that on targets that LLVM doesn't support natively. You can trivially
	tell that the Kaleidoscope compiler generates target-independent code because it
	never queries for any target-specific information when generating code.</p>

	<p>The fact that LLVM provides a compact, target-independent, representation for
	code gets a lot of people excited. Unfortunately, these people are usually
	thinking about C or a language from the C family when they are asking questions
	about language portability. I say "unfortunately", because there is really no
	way to make (fully general) C code portable, other than shipping the source code
	around (and of course, C source code is not actually portable in general
	either - ever port a really old application from 32- to 64-bits?).</p>

	<p>The problem with C (again, in its full generality) is that it is heavily
	laden with target specific assumptions. As one simple example, the preprocessor
	often destructively removes target-independence from the code when it processes
	the input text:</p>

	<div class="doc_code">
	<pre>
	#ifdef __i386__
	int X = 1;
	#else
	int X = 42;
	#endif
	</pre>
	</div>

	<p>While it is possible to engineer more and more complex solutions to problems
	like this, it cannot be solved in full generality in a way that is better than shipping
	the actual source code.</p>

	<p>That said, there are interesting subsets of C that can be made portable. If
	you are willing to fix primitive types to a fixed size (say int = 32-bits,
	and long = 64-bits), don't care about ABI compatibility with existing binaries,
	and are willing to give up some other minor features, you can have portable
	code. This can make sense for specialized domains such as an
	in-kernel language.</p>

	</div>

	<!-- ======================================================================= -->
	<div class="doc_subsubsection"><a name="safety">Safety Guarantees</a></div>
	<!-- ======================================================================= -->

	<div class="doc_text">

	<p>Many of the languages above are also "safe" languages: it is impossible for
	a program written in Java to corrupt its address space and crash the process
	(assuming the JVM has no bugs).
	Safety is an interesting property that requires a combination of language
	design, runtime support, and often operating system support.</p>

	<p>It is certainly possible to implement a safe language in LLVM, but LLVM IR
	does not itself guarantee safety. The LLVM IR allows unsafe pointer casts,
	use after free bugs, buffer over-runs, and a variety of other problems. Safety
	needs to be implemented as a layer on top of LLVM and, conveniently, several
	groups have investigated this. Ask on the <a
	href="http://lists.cs.uiuc.edu/mailman/listinfo/llvmdev">llvmdev mailing
	list</a> if you are interested in more details.</p>

	</div>

	<!-- ======================================================================= -->
	<div class="doc_subsubsection"><a name="langspecific">Language-Specific
	Optimizations</a></div>
	<!-- ======================================================================= -->

	<div class="doc_text">

	<p>One thing about LLVM that turns off many people is that it does not solve all
	the world's problems in one system (sorry 'world hunger', someone else will have
	to solve you some other day). One specific complaint is that people perceive
	LLVM as being incapable of performing high-level language-specific optimization:
	LLVM "loses too much information".</p>

	<p>Unfortunately, this is really not the place to give you a full and unified
	version of "Chris Lattner's theory of compiler design". Instead, I'll make a
	few observations:</p>

	<p>First, you're right that LLVM does lose information. For example, as of this
	writing, there is no way to distinguish in the LLVM IR whether an SSA-value came
	from a C "int" or a C "long" on an ILP32 machine (other than debug info). Both
	get compiled down to an 'i32' value and the information about what it came from
	is lost. The more general issue here, is that the LLVM type system uses
	"structural equivalence" instead of "name equivalence". Another place this
	surprises people is if you have two types in a high-level language that have the
	same structure (e.g. two different structs that have a single int field): these
	types will compile down into a single LLVM type and it will be impossible to
	tell what it came from.</p>

	<p>Second, while LLVM does lose information, LLVM is not a fixed target: we
	continue to enhance and improve it in many different ways. In addition to
	adding new features (LLVM did not always support exceptions or debug info), we
	also extend the IR to capture important information for optimization (e.g.
	whether an argument is sign or zero extended, information about pointers
	aliasing, etc). Many of the enhancements are user-driven: people want LLVM to
	include some specific feature, so they go ahead and extend it.</p>

	<p>Third, it is <em>possible and easy</em> to add language-specific
	optimizations, and you have a number of choices in how to do it. As one trivial
	example, it is easy to add language-specific optimization passes that
	"know" things about code compiled for a language. In the case of the C family,
	there is an optimization pass that "knows" about the standard C library
	functions. If you call "exit(0)" in main(), it knows that it is safe to
	optimize that into "return 0;" because C specifies what the 'exit'
	function does.</p>

	<p>In addition to simple library knowledge, it is possible to embed a variety of
	other language-specific information into the LLVM IR. If you have a specific
	need and run into a wall, please bring the topic up on the llvmdev list. At the
	very worst, you can always treat LLVM as if it were a "dumb code generator" and
	implement the high-level optimizations you desire in your front-end, on the
	language-specific AST.
	</p>

	</div>

	<!-- *********************************************************************** -->
	<div class="doc_section"><a name="tipsandtricks">Tips and Tricks</a></div>
	<!-- *********************************************************************** -->

	<div class="doc_text">

	<p>There is a variety of useful tips and tricks that you come to know after
	working on/with LLVM that aren't obvious at first glance. Instead of letting
	everyone rediscover them, this section talks about some of these issues.</p>

	</div>

	<!-- ======================================================================= -->
	<div class="doc_subsubsection"><a name="offsetofsizeof">Implementing portable
	offsetof/sizeof</a></div>
	<!-- ======================================================================= -->

	<div class="doc_text">

	<p>One interesting thing that comes up, if you are trying to keep the code
	generated by your compiler "target independent", is that you often need to know
	the size of some LLVM type or the offset of some field in an llvm structure.
	For example, you might need to pass the size of a type into a function that
	allocates memory.</p>

	<p>Unfortunately, this can vary widely across targets: for example the width of
	a pointer is trivially target-specific. However, there is a <a
	href="http://nondot.org/sabre/LLVMNotes/SizeOf-OffsetOf-VariableSizedStructs.txt">clever
	way to use the getelementptr instruction</a> that allows you to compute this
	in a portable way.</p>

	</div>

	<!-- ======================================================================= -->
	<div class="doc_subsubsection"><a name="gcstack">Garbage Collected
	Stack Frames</a></div>
	<!-- ======================================================================= -->

	<div class="doc_text">

	<p>Some languages want to explicitly manage their stack frames, often so that
	they are garbage collected or to allow easy implementation of closures. There
	are often better ways to implement these features than explicit stack frames,
	but <a
	href="http://nondot.org/sabre/LLVMNotes/ExplicitlyManagedStackFrames.txt">LLVM
	does support them,</a> if you want. It requires your front-end to convert the
	code into <a
	href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuation-passing_style">Continuation
	Passing Style</a> and the use of tail calls (which LLVM also supports).</p>

	</div>

	<!-- *********************************************************************** -->
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	<a href="mailto:sabre@nondot.org">Chris Lattner</a><br>
	<a href="http://llvm.org">The LLVM Compiler Infrastructure</a><br>
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